![]() There is little information on the persistence of DWV infectivity outside their hosts, but considering that DWV virions are similar to those of other Picorna-like viruses, it is very likely that environmental DWV contamination plays a significant role in circulation of DWV. Persistence of virus infectivity in the environment can vary Enveloped viruses, such as influenza and coronaviruses, are considered less stable than non-enveloped viruses, such as norovirus ( 21). While little work has been conducted to investigate this latter route, honey bees were found to become infected by interacting with DWV-contaminated beeswax ( 18). Adult honey bees clean hive substrates, including the meconium and other contents remaining in pupal cells of newly-eclosed adults, possibly becoming exposed to latent DWV on interior surfaces of hives ( 19, 20). Workers may also be infected through feeding on DWV-contaminated hive products, such as pollen ( 17) and honey ( 18), or by cannibalizing infected pupae ( 12). In the absence of mites, the virus persists in bee populations as a covert infection, transmitted horizontally ( 11) via several routes, including orally among adults through trophallaxis ( 12) and between adults and immature bees via hypopharyngeal gland secretions ( 13) and brood food ( 14) fed to larvae, and possibly through a fecal–oral route of transmission between adult bees ( 15, 16). DWV infections can reduce the lifespan of covertly infected adult honey bees ( 9, 10). These symptoms are strongly correlated with elevated DWV levels ( i.e., genome equivalents (GE)) ( 8). Symptoms of overt DWV infections of adult honey bees include damaged appendages, particularly stubby, useless wings, shortened, rounded abdomens, and miscoloring and paralysis of the legs and wings. A growing body of evidence suggests that spread of the mite Varroa destructor (hereafter, Varroa) has greatly increased pathogenicity of DWV ( 4– 6), making it the most important viral pathogen of the Western honey bee, Apis mellifera ( 7). ![]() Treatment of DWV contaminated hive substrates with iHP, even with honey bees present, may be an effective way to decrease the impacts of DWV infection on honey bees.ĭeformed wing virus (DWV) is a positive-stranded RNA virus ( Iflaviradae) that infects several hymenopteran taxa including bees, wasps, and ants ( 1– 3). The level of DWV inactivation achieved with iHP treatment was higher than other means of viral inactivation such as gamma irradiation, and iHP treatment is likely simpler and safer. iHP treatment also greatly reduced the incidence of overt DWV infections (i.e., pupae having >10 9 copies of DWV). iHP-treated DWV sources were ~10 5-fold less infectious when injected into naïve honey bee pupae compared to DWV receiving no iHP treatment, matching injected controls containing no DWV. In this study, we investigated the use of iHP to inactivate DWV particles in situ on a solid substrate. Cold plasma ionized hydrogen peroxide (iHP) is used extensively by the food production, processing and medical industries to clean surfaces of microbial contaminants. DWV can be horizontally transmitted among bees through various oral routes, including via food sharing and by interactions of bees with viral-contaminated solid hive substrates. 3Arkema, Inc., King of Prussia, PA, United Statesĭeformed wing virus (DWV) is a widespread pathogen of Apis mellifera honey bees, and is considered a major causative factor for the collapse of infected honey bee colonies. ![]() 2Department of Entomology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, United States.1United States Department of Agriculture - Agricultural Research (USDA-ARS) Service, Bee Research Laboratory, Beltsville, MD, United States.Rogers 1 Francisco Posada-Florez 1 Jay D.
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